Under the Sea free essay sample

Under the Sea University of Overpowering the lands is water. About 70 percent of the Earths surface is submerged in water. The Acorns are so massive, scientist have only had the opportunity to explore a significantly small portion of it. However, the small portion recorded has discovered over 2 million species of marine animals. That is not including the fractions of the animals that live in the unexplored oceans floors and surfaces (Science Daily, 2011). Besides the fact that there are many more wonders of the acorns to be discovered, the impacts that humans have had on the explored cesareans have been significant. Although humans are only 2 billion years old, two and half billion years younger than the world we have to manage to disrupt the essential balance we need to survive. In this essay I will discuss the characteristics of the ocean. I will explain how life depends on acorns. Some of the most recognizable species will be discussed. We will write a custom essay sample on Under the Sea or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Cover topics of problematic aspects which influence the ocean. I will also discuss how technology has had an impact on the ocean. Lastly, I will include scientific measures that are being initiated to help preserve marine life ND actions we can take as individuals to help protect our beautiful and unique acorns. The Creation of Life Everyone would agree that the world was created over 4. 5 billion years ago. It is believed to nave sat rated to a dust particle. Humans were created only 2 billion years ago (HOME, 2009). The miracle of life began from a ball of fire. It was a cloud of dust particles. The atmosphere was thick with water vapor and full of carbon dioxide a dense furnace. After the earth cooled the water vapor condensed, it fell on in significant downpours. Because Earth is at the perfect angle from the sun, the Earth was enabled to conserve the water. Water kept by the earth cut channels and created rivers and acorns. These channels are equivalent to earth as veins are to a body. Life first sparked into place earths hot springs. Life form still exists within these. They are known as archer bacteria. All these bacteria feed off of the earths heat. The cyan bacteria (better known as green algae) have the ability to turn to the sun and capture energy directly from it. These bacteria are the ancestors to all plant species. They are hat caused the destiny of our planet to change. They are responsible for the transformation for our atmosphere. Carbon once poisoned their atmosphere and it is still around today. Deep beneath the Earths crust there is a sea inhabited by micro organisms that grew their shells by tapping into the carbon from the atmosphere and dissolved in the ocean. Now, mountains many of the worlds mountains are the remains of the accumulated shells of billions and billions of these micro organisms. Because of these organisms the carbon was drained from the atmosphere and other life forms were able to develop. Life altered the atmosphere. The suns energy was used to feed plants causing it to brake apart the water molecules and take the oxygen. And Just like that oxygen filled the air. (HOME, 2009). The earths water process is constantly being renewed. The waterfalls cause water vapor which cause clouds are then drained causing rain. The rain refills springs, rivers, seas, and acorns. When the temperature is Just right they cause glaciers. And the cycle goes on and on. The same amount of water always exists on Earth. Every successful species has drunk the same water. (HOME, 2009). The documentary HOME describes the engine of life as being linkage. Everything is linked and nothing is self sufficient. Water and air are inseparable united in life (2009). The algae that tint the oceans surfaces is responsible for creating 70% of the gas that is vital to our lungs. When algae and shells combine they create coral reefs. Although the coral makes up for less than one percent of the oceans floors, it is home to over one thousand species of fish, mollusks, and algae, the equilibrium of every ocean depends on it (HOME, 2009). Characteristics of the Ocean Some ocean floors can be as deep as thousands of feet. The deepest part of the ocean, known to man is called the Challenger Deep. It is found beneath the western and Pacific Ocean in the southern end of the Marina Trench and is 36, 200 feet deep. (NOAA, n. D. ). However, most of the ocean life is found within the first 200 meters of the oceans surface. Anything below that level does not reach sun light which is essential to feed through photosynthesis. Anything below this depth makes is almost impossible to survive because the lack of sun. Although most of the oceans lord are unexplored it is believe that are alike all around. However, the portion of the oceans surface, that the sun does reach, change dramatically from location to location. This is a result of the different characteristics that the sun causes. Temperatures, movement of the water, and the amount of salt are contributing factors that determine which animal can live in that habitat. Based on the habitats ocean characteristics vary. Superb solvent is one the most important characteristics of the acorns. As fresh water is deposited from rivers into the ocean, it rips of minerals off rocks making the ocean water salty. The temperatures of the oceans water vary based on the location of the water. The waters located near the equator are always warmer because they are closer to the sun. The waters located on the poles are cooler because they are furthest from the sun. The movements of the water are impacted by the actions of Mother Nature and humans. Windy days can cause the oceans water to act up and move any direction it would like. However, massive ships rocky shores, swimmers, and boats can interfere with the movement of the ocean, but very minimal. But the three most significant forces that create the different water movements are waves, currents and ocean tides. More beautiful characteristics of the ocean are the waves. Every clash of the waves becomes energy. When waves break across the shore they can be a source for the great mixing oceans water (geography for kids, n. D). The oceans currents are influenced by the temperature, salinity, and wind. These currents are responsible for the movement caused in the acorns. An even more important factor to the oceans movement are the tides which are caused by the gravity of the moon and sun. These tides cause the water levels to rise and fall. Most typically, the water levels are high for six hours and low for another six hours. How are humans influencing the ocean? As technology advances animals and habitats become more and more endangered. The growth of the population is a stresses the oceans CEO system. This is because many more are creating urban areas and destroying coastal areas. It seems that the bigger the city grows the more tourist it attracts. When visitors come and visit these lands they leave behind waste that endangers animals of any kind. When this waste tests the ocean birds and fish, both, mistake the garbage causing them in ingest plastics and other trashes that they are not able to digest. When their stomachs get full of these foreign objects they are held back from eating foods that are going to keep them alive. The importation of items in big vessels is also a contributing factor to ocean CEO systems. This is because the ways the large vessels operate requires them to intake large quantities of waters and are released at later times. Not being able to help the situation, when the boats take in the water they pick up animals that are native to the areas in which the boat took in the water, but when they are released they are most likely released into new habitats, where they are now aliens. These species can then be of harm to the species which are natives to the habitats in which they landed. Littering is one of the worst negative human impacts marine life has encountered. When humans litter it most likely ends up on the ocean. As a result of metropolitan cities and incorrect disposal of waste, in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, there is now a toxic island, the size of Texas, that is composed of nothing but garbage and it is offered to as Island of Garbage. A huge misconception is that the worse type of spills is those of oil, however it is really the plastic trash that will float around for years. The affects of pollution and littering do not only hit animals, it also affects humans. A study in Japan shows that those many ladies who could not keep a full- term pregnancy and kept miscarrying were found to have high levels of a chemical used to produce a non-recyclable plastic. In a year Americans throw away over 100 billion polyethylene plastic bags (Youth, 2012). Now , the acorns hold 1 million ones, minimum of garbage (Youth, 2012). Americans, on a minimum, use a plastic bag for less than an hour till they go home and unload their groceries. After they dispose of this bag it is, soon, floating somewhere in the oceans surface where it will last 20 years. There is no innocent party in this dilemma. Not yawningly, but helplessly we have contributed to plastic in the ocean because it is our society, it is our way of life. Every product we buy is wrapped in something. Some measurements we can take are reducing the amounts of unnecessary items we use. Buy recyclable bags to go rocker shopping.

Free Essays on Against Affirmative Action

Thirty-eight years ago, there was discrimination occurring in America that made it necessary for our government to create and enforce a law called Affirmative Action. Although this was a positive intervention at the time, Affirmative Action is no longer necessary today. Affirmative action is any plan or program that promotes the employment of women and members of any minority group (Britannica 172). This term, first used by President John F. Kennedy, is an action taken to remedy the effects and specifically end job and college entrance discrimination (Neiss 244). In nineteen sixty-four, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of nineteen sixty-four which made job discrimination illegal and really began to push Kennedy’s affirmative action. When President Richard M. Nixon took office, he became the first to implement federal policies designed to guarantee minority hiring. Over the years, there have been two significant court cases involving affirmative action. The first case occurred during the nineteen-seventies. A young man named Allan Bakke; who applied twice to the University of California medical school, was rejected in result of affirmative action policies both years. Bakke took his case to the Supreme Court, and in nineteen seventy eight, the court ruled in his favor. Allan Bakke’s case resulted in an established affirmative action quota in colleges, and he was also admitted into the University of California medical school. The second significant court case involving affirmative action occurred more recently. In nineteen ninety-six, a forty-three year old mother named Barbara Grutter applied to the University of Michigan law school. Grutter was not admitted into the school based on its racial preferences. The following year in nineteen ninety-seven, two other white students with good grades and high SAT scores were also denied admission at the University of Michigan. All three students to... Free Essays on Against Affirmative Action Free Essays on Against Affirmative Action Thirty-eight years ago, there was discrimination occurring in America that made it necessary for our government to create and enforce a law called Affirmative Action. Although this was a positive intervention at the time, Affirmative Action is no longer necessary today. Affirmative action is any plan or program that promotes the employment of women and members of any minority group (Britannica 172). This term, first used by President John F. Kennedy, is an action taken to remedy the effects and specifically end job and college entrance discrimination (Neiss 244). In nineteen sixty-four, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of nineteen sixty-four which made job discrimination illegal and really began to push Kennedy’s affirmative action. When President Richard M. Nixon took office, he became the first to implement federal policies designed to guarantee minority hiring. Over the years, there have been two significant court cases involving affirmative action. The first case occurred during the nineteen-seventies. A young man named Allan Bakke; who applied twice to the University of California medical school, was rejected in result of affirmative action policies both years. Bakke took his case to the Supreme Court, and in nineteen seventy eight, the court ruled in his favor. Allan Bakke’s case resulted in an established affirmative action quota in colleges, and he was also admitted into the University of California medical school. The second significant court case involving affirmative action occurred more recently. In nineteen ninety-six, a forty-three year old mother named Barbara Grutter applied to the University of Michigan law school. Grutter was not admitted into the school based on its racial preferences. The following year in nineteen ninety-seven, two other white students with good grades and high SAT scores were also denied admission at the University of Michigan. All three students to...

Marketing transportation homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing transportation homework - Essay Example Q15. A global sourcing development model has the following components: planning (finding the global sourcing opportunities & challenges), specification (quantifying and qualifying current resources), evaluation (Whether the supplier is matching the selection criterion), relationship management (building mutually beneficial long term relationship in cross cultural dimensions), transportation and holding costs (tradeoff between them), implementation, and monitoring and improvement (if any). Establishing a sourcing strategy is one of the most difficult tasks for procurement function. Hidden costs associated with procurement change the expected benefits significantly. These hidden costs must be taken into account during sourcing - a. Ocean carriers and international airlines have direct relation with nation’s economy, because they affect the nation’s balance of payments. Countries with weak balance of payments may impose license or permit on goods

Citigroup and JPMorgan Chase Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Citigroup and JPMorgan Chase - Essay Example (57 percent), Europe, the Middle East, and Africa (21 percent), Asia and the Pacific (13 percent), and Latin America (7 percent). Citibank is a major force in international finance, its consumer segment offers banking, lending, insurance, and investment services through a network of 8,110 branches, approximately 18,800 automated teller machines, 809 automated lending machines, and the Internet. The Corporate and Investment Banking segment provides various investment and commercial banking services and products, which comprise investment banking and advisory services, debt and equity trading, institutional brokerage, foreign exchange, structured products, derivatives, and lending. It also offers cash management and trade finance for corporations and financial institutions; custody and fund services to insurance companies and pension funds; clearing services to intermediaries; and depository and agency/trust services to multinational corporations and government. The Global Wealth Management of Citigroup provides investment advisory services, financial planning, and brokerage services to wealthy individuals, companies, and non-profits organizations. Other services include investment management, such as investment funds management, capital markets solutions, trust, fiduciary, and custody services; investment finance that comprises credit services, such as real estate financing, commitments, and letters of credit; and banking services that consist of deposit, checking, and savings accounts, as well as cash management and other banking services. Today Citigroup is the finest financial services company, with approximately 200 million customer accounts in more than 100 countries. In a news report / press release issued by the Citigroup that it has completed the purchase of Egg Banking plc (Egg), the world's largest pure online bank and one of the UK's leading online financial services providers, from Prudential PLC. In another press release, Citigroup on April 26th 2007 announced its successful completion of tender offer to become the majority shareholder of Nikko Cordial Corporation. Citigroup will own in excess of 60% ownership in Nikko Cordial. Nikko Cordial is a premier Japanese financial institution based out of Tokyo. J. P Morgan Chase A constituent of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, JPMorgan Chase has its corporate headquarters in New York and its U.S. retail financial services and commercial banking headquarters in Chicago. Under its JPMorgan and Chase brands, the firm serves millions of consumers in the United States and many of the world's most prominent corporate, institutional and government clients. The company operates through six segments: Investment Bank, Retail Financial Services, Card Services, Commercial Banking, Treasury and Securities Services, and Asset Management. The Investment Bank segment offers investment banking products and services, such as advising on corporate strategy and structure, capital raising in equity and debt markets, risk management, market making in cash securities and derivative instruments, and research. It also serves corporations, financial institutions, governments, and institutional investors. The Retail Financial Services provides regional banking services, including co nsumer and business banking, home equity lending, and education lending, as well as offers mortgage banking and auto finance services. The Card

Case study Analysis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis - Case Study Example In order to achieve this, the board members should be freely elected by the shareholders on the basis of their experience and competencies. 2.Tim Harrington’s efforts to manage the board of directors and investors are worthless given that he has no influence over them. In the first place, he does not want any interference from them which puts him in a difficult corner. He may not be able to influence their decisions since there is a division that already exist the two. Tim is hard headed since he thinks that he can make decisions without the input of the members of the board which is quite impossible. The management should have reviewed the business strategy to see if it can turn around the fortunes of the company by venturing into another lucrative form of business. Tim’s view of â€Å"better to ask for forgiveness than beg for permission shows that he has pride. He thinks he is above the situation in all respects in the company. He thinks that he cannot seek for permission from the board to implement certain decisions which is not supposed to be the case. 3. The venture capital decision is favourable to the people who belong to the group since it reflects their interests. Being the major shareholders in the company, selling the company is a viable strategy that can prevent loses in the long run since the financial crisis witnessed is unpredictable. In most cases, the factors obtaining on the ground in the real economic situation are beyond the control of many organizations. When there have been signs of bad things to come, it would be wise to dispose the company while there is still time. This can help to salvage the money invested in the company. ________________________________________________________________ The board of directors in a public company should be composed of independent people who have interests of the company and the other shareholders at heart. People with direct interests in

Appraisal And Evidence Synthesis Of Two Reviews

Appraisal And Evidence Synthesis Of Two Reviews Select two reviews of your choice. One should be a Systematic Review and the other a Traditional Selective Review. Critically discuss the quality of your reviews with respect to a standard assessment tool suitable for reviews. The aim of a review is to give an overview of the primary studies of a particular subject and analyse them in a way, which is thorough, unbiased and reproducible, should it be repeated. about the gathering of the primary data that is being reviewed. A systematic review is a method of synthesising primary research and studies. It is based on having a clearly formulated question that uses systematic and explicit methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review (Cochrane Collaboration Glosasry, 2010). It also uses an objective and transparent approach for research synthesis, with the aim of minimizing bias. Statistical methods known as meta-analysis may or may not be used to analyse and summarise the results of the included studies (Wiesler McGauran, 2010). Systematic reviews differ from narrative reviews. A narrative review differs in that the question being answered is usually less specific and has a wider focus of interest (Cook et al, 1997). A narrative review may look more at the interaction of variables within a problem or the development and management of a problem, while a systematic review will usually focus on a specific and answerable question; therefore have a clear defined outcome that it is gathering evidence about. A narrative review summarizes different primary studies from which conclusions may be drawn in to holistic interpretation contributed by the reviewers own experience, existing theories and models with results having a qualitative rather than a quantitative meaning (Campbell Collaborative, 2001; Kirkevold, 1997). As with all types of research reviews both systematic and narrative need to be appraised for their relevance and value to the subject it relates. A number of tools have been developed to help with the process of critically appraising of research. For the purpose of this assignment, the tool that will be used was produced by the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP), defining questions and prompts to assess the review, based on questions developed by Oxman et al (1994). This is an appraisal tool that assesses three main issues; is the study valid? What the results are and whether those results help locally. The aim of this tool has been designed to answer these questions in a detailed and systematic manner. Furthermore, this tool has been selected as it has been specifically designed to support evidence-based practice in health and social care (Public Health Resources Unit, 2006) and therefore it forces the reviewer to also consider the perspective of the patient and it is of relevance to the articles that have been selected here. The systematic review to be used for this assignment is Gava et al (2009) Psychological Treatments Versus Treatment as Usual for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. This review was chosen from The Cochrane Library, as the systematic reviews here have all been carried out using precise methodology, are updated in line with new research and are specifically intended to help anyone involved in healthcare, including patients (The Cochrane Collaboration, 2010). The narrative review to be considered will be Abramowitz et al (2001) Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A review of the treatment literature. This review was found in a search on the CINAHL database. The CASP tool to be used is specific to systematic reviews (PHRU, 2006); however it will be adapted here to also appraise the narrative review. The ten questions asked in the CASP tool will now be considered. Did the review ask a clearly focused question? Liberati et al (2009) stated that authors should always identify their report as a systematic review or meta-analysis. Although sensitive search strategies have been developed to identify reviews, inclusion of the terms systematic review or meta-analysis in the title may improve indexing and identification (Montori et al, 2005). Furthermore, the title of a systematic review should be informative making key information easily accessible to the reader. This should include reflecting PICOS approach (participants, interventions, comparators, outcomes and study design) providing key information about the scope of the review (Liberati et al, 2009). The systematic review used for the purpose of this assignment was Psychological Treatments versus Treatment as Usual for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) (Review). This title failed to provide details of any participants or settings. The intervention and comparator are given as psychological treatments and treatment as usual, however, these had not been clearly specified and details of the outcome measure had not been provided either. Furthermore, the title simply stated review. Such terms do not enlighten the reader whether the review was systematic or whether a meta-analysis was performed (Liberati et al, 2009). Therefore, it has to be noted that the review failed to ask a clearly focused question. The narrative review of the Abramowitz et al (2001) study was Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A review of the treatment literature. As with the systematic review this paper also failed to use the PICOS approach, nevertheless, as a narrative review summaries the research more generally, these details may not even be appropriate (Cook et al, 1997). In this review the intervention was specified as Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and it had been clearly indicated that this was a traditional review. Even though the question was not clearly focused, the author does provide the reader with an insight as to what the article contains. Did the review include the right type of study? The studies discussed in the systematic review included looking at any psychological treatment compared to any treatment as usual for adults with OCD, which appeared to be appropriate for answering the research question. All of the included studies were randomised controlled trials (RCTs) which appeared to be an appropriate study design with the focus being on the effectiveness of interventions (Hill Spittlehouse, 2003). However, by including RCTs only and excluding other forms of research, this may result on limiting the conclusions drawn in the review. This appears of particular relevance to healthcare where qualitative forms of data, such as patients experience of an intervention, should be considered of great importance (Petticrew, 2001). The studies discussed in the narrative review also seem to address the question as research carried out on CBT for OCD was drawn upon. It also stated that the review focused particularly on exposure and response prevention treatment. This decision appeared to reflect the authors own interest rather than a thorough search of the available literature, which may lead to some form of bias being introduced. The review draws largely upon RCTs and meta-analyses, which may be appropriate as the focus of interest was effectiveness (Hill Spittlehouse, 2003). However, limiting to the inclusion of only this research design and in a narrative review, it would seem that a range of research could have been incorporated easily as this review appeared limited from not having done so. As explicit details of each study used were not provided, other methodology could have been included but not clearly described. Did the reviewers try to identify all relevant studies? To help identify all potentially appropriate research, a thorough literature search must be conducted in order to carry out a systematic review. This involves not only searching electronic databases, but also checking the reference lists of any selected articles in order to identify further research (Greenhalgh, 1997b), searching for non-English language research and unpublished research ( Centre for Reviews Disseminations, 2008). This helps to reduce any bias in research that is published in non-English languages, as research showing significant results tend to be published in English journals. Furthermore, by having English publications only may have a greater impact on the results than there actually was. By searching a number of various electronic journal databases, reference lists, unpublished and ongoing research and also research in non-English language indicated that Gava et al (2009) attempted to conduct a thorough literature research. There were no details or information provided to indicate how the studies were obtained or how the search was conducted for the narrative review. Even though researches from other countries have been referenced, no indication has been given whether this was taken from non-English language publications. Emphasis has been placed on research into exposure and response prevention therapy and the authors own work has also been cited. This however places some aspect of bias on the review as the reviewer has a clear interest in the topic currently being reviewed. Did the reviewers assess the quality of the included studies? The Gava et al (2009) systematic review describes rigorous quality assessment. A pre-determined scoring system was used which should help to reduce bias by making quality criteria objective and unrelated to the outcomes of the research (Greenhalgh, 1997b). To help reduce the chances of any bias emerging, quality assessments were carried out by two authors independently. However, it must be noted that all articles were included regardless of their quality standard. Furthermore, it has been suggested that not all the authors made the method of randomisation used explicit and they were not always blind to the allocation. Abramowitz et als (2001) review does not mention any formal quality assessment. It must be noted that some informal judgements have been made. Furthermore, it has been noted that some of the research discussed in the review failed to be conducted to a high standard as reference was made to the use of control groups where comparison treatments used was known to be of no benefit to sufferers of OCD. This is unethical as participants allocated to the control groups would have received ineffective treatment which would have had an impact on the results as participants in these groups would have experienced higher anxiety levels and frustration making gains in the experimental group appear much higher. As narrative reviews do not normally employ pre-defined quality assessment tools, research included is likely to be of inconsistent quality and is more at risk of bias (Cook et al, 1997). If the results of the studies have been combined, was it reasonable to do so? Results of each study used can be combined in a systematic review to increase the sensitivity to significant results (Crombie, 1996). However, this should only be done when the studies and their results are similar enough to make the combination of findings meaningful (Crombie, 1996). The Gava et al (2009) review did combine the results of all the studies reviewed. The results of each study were presented in a forest plot showing the mean, standard deviation and confidence interval for each. Heterogeneity was also considered both by eyeballing the data and also by statistical analysis, which found no significant differences in the main analyses, but did find significant differences on some of the secondary analyses. General reasons for heterogeneity were discussed at the start of the paper, but the specific heterogeneity found was not discussed in great lengths. Furthermore, a weighting system was used to combine the results. This means that in the analyses stages studies displaying lower level quality were then given a lower weight making this an effective method for including such studies. The Abramowitz et al (2001) review did not combine the results of all the studies reviewed. In general terms the CRD (2008) state that the intentions of a narrative review is generally to provide a summary of relevant research rather than to synthesis or re-analyse. Furthermore, they also state that this could lead to further biased conclusions based on the reviewers own opinions rather than on stringent analyses that could be recreated by other researchers. How the results presented and what are the main result? In the systematic review, the results have been presented in the body of the text and also as in forest plots. CRD (2008) state that results should be expressed in formats that are easily understood. The most commonly used graphic is the forest plot as it provides a simple representation of the precision of individual and overall results and of the variation between study results (CRD, 2008). The results indicated that psychological treatments led to more improvements in OCB symptoms than did treatments as usual. Improvements in dropout rates, quality of life, anxiety and depression levels in both psychological and treatment were also taken into consideration. Psychological therapy was broken down further to look at the variables being expressed, the mean differences being calculated for continuous variables, but it also took into consideration and reported on the individual effects of CBT, Cognitive Therapy and Behaviour Therapy. Abramowitz et al (2001) review also discussed results for each study reviewed. This indicated that exposure and response prevention were both effective therapies for OCD. However, since no statistics had been used then it was not possible to assess how large and significant the results were without referring to the original research. The research presented tends to be interpreted in favour of exposure and response prevention therapy, even with the results appear to suggest little difference (JÃ ¼ni et al, 2001). The conclusions drawn here are based on the authors own opinions and could have been subjected to biased interpretation of results or detection bias (JÃ ¼ni et al, 2001). How precise are the results? The use of confidence intervals in systematic reviews gives the reader an idea of how precise the results can be considered to be (Hopkins, 2001). Confidence intervals describe the range within which a result for the whole population would occur for a specified proportion of times a survey or test was repeated among a sample of the population. Confidence intervals are a standard way of expressing the statistical accuracy of a survey-based estimate (Young Bolton, 2009). The confidence interval expresses the uncertainty around the point estimate, describing a range of values within which it is reasonably certain that the true effect lies; wider confidence interval reflects greater uncertainty (CRD, 2008). Where a 95% confidence interval is reported then we can be reasonably confidence that the range included the true value for the population as a whole. Formally we would expect it to contain the true value 95% of the time (Young Bolton, 2009). Although intervals can be reported for a ny level of confidence, in most systematic reviews of health interventions, the 95% confidence interval is used (CRD, 2008). Eight studies (11 study comparisons) were identified, all of which compared cognitive and/or behavioural treatments versus treatment as usual control groups. Seven studies (ten comparisons) had usable data for meta-analyses. These studies demonstrated that patients receiving any variant of cognitive behavioural treatment exhibited significantly fewer symptoms post-treatment than those receiving treatment as usual (SMD -1.24, 95%, CI -1.61 to -0.87, 1Â ² test for heterogeneity was not significant at 33.4%) (Gava et al, 2009). Different types of cognitive and / or behavioural treatments showed similar differences in effect when compared with treatment as usual. Results obtained for CBT on OCD symptoms exhibited that the overall mean difference (fixed effects) was in favour of psychological treatments (WMD -7.73, 95%, CI -9.92, -5.55). The 1Â ² test of heterogeneity was not significant at 33.4%. Results obtained for cognitive therapy on OCD symptoms exhibited that the overall standardised mean difference (random effects) were slightly in favour of psychological treatments (SMD -1.20, 95%, CI -2.66, 0.25). The 1Â ² test of heterogeneity was not significant at 74.2%. The overall treatment effect appeared to be influenced by differences in baselin e severity (Gava et al, 2009). Within the Abramowitz et al (2001) paper, there does not seem to be any confidence intervals apparent within, thus leaving us unable to analyse how precise the results, which are described within the paper truly are. In comparison to the systematic review, this approach appears to be highly less open; the author is able to narrate the results in however way they please for example they could suggest that they are highly significant or interpret them as equal to their own theoretical standing but without the need of referral to the original case, however there is no way a certain conclusion as to whether this has occurred or not be drawn up. Can the results be applied to the local population? Within the Gava et al (2009) paper, population details and setting for each study do not seem to be clearly apparent. Although a high percentage are noted as outpatient, a number of settings were not highlighted as to their location or setting. Due to this lack of knowledge, and that some of the studies could have been carried out in a inpatient setting, it would not be possible to ascertain a generalised result to the local population with information found in the inpatient studies. It was stated that the statistical data, or demographics, of the participants were of a similar and consistent nature however there was no in depth analysis or description of them. Due to this small fact, therefore it would not have been possible to state that these were similar to the local population. The duration of treatments described when provided locally was usually shorter thus it can assume some of the methods could not be provided within the local settings. Therefore, the generalisation of the results requires some degree of accuracy and precision for there are often vast and clearly significant differences between the sample and the settings used, here and the local population. Once again, within the Abramowitz et al (2001) review, there was no description of the population meaning that it was not possible to ascertain a generalised collaboration of results. Furthermore, as one of the studies had been carried out in an inpatient setting, then it would not have been possible to generalise these results within such settings. The duration of these studies are described as being of 60-90 minutes on a daily basis which frankly could not have been possible locally. Therefore it is vital that care is taken when attempting to create a generalised result from this review as things that appear to be insignificant, as such small details can be inevitably crucial elements. Were all the important outcomes considered? The Gava et al (2009) review discussed various outcomes as well as improvements in OCD symptoms. Also considered were the outcomes for anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, dropout rates and quality of life. These elements were not only likely to be of a high degree of importance to the service providers but also to the service users themselves. Service leads, mental health commissioners and policy makers / government officials may also be interested in dropout rates and reasons for dropout i.e. at initial assessment or at follow up appointment. Details of each therapy session missed, cancelled, failed to attend would be important as well. The narrative review also discussed various improvements in OCD symptoms with each intervention. Consideration was given to the distress linked with exposure therapy, as it would be an important factor for all parties concerned i.e. patient and their families, and also taking into account the supporting role of the carer while patient receives therapy. Abramowitz et al (2001) review state that a relatively large number of clients refuse participation in exposure therapy because of anxiety evoking elements of treatment (i.e. confronting feared stimuli). This places emphasis on the importance of understanding the rationale for exposure therapy, demonstrating mastery of case conceptualization, and providing the client with a convincing explanation of why confronting feared situations will result in long-term abatement of obsessions and compulsions. Should policy or practice change as a result of the evidence contained in the review? The current use of CBT for OCD is supported by the Gava et al (2009) review. Despite this, any RCT or other psychological therapy was unidentifiable by the author whilst other types of therapy did not fit the required format needed in order to carry out a RCT to the same quality that a CBT does thus meaning it has more controlled research in comparison to other forms of therapy. One criticism of systematic reviews is their bias towards certain methodologies for important research may not be included thus leading to biased conclusions. Further research is therefore needed to make comparisons between CBT and other types of therapy; it may be that a mixed methods review would have been carried out in order to do this effectively (Dixon-Woods et al, 2004) A biased review is also present in Abramowtiz et al (2001). In this case it is towards studies in support of exposure and response prevention therapy. No decision can be reached from this review for a thorough search to identify all research in the area -quality assessment and the clear display of results was not completed. Conclusions are more likely to be biased and not be representative of all the evidence in the field within narrative views for they do not follow a predefined and set methodology thus, narrative reviews are less likely to influence policy and practise. Conclusion It is evident that both methodologies consist of advantages and disadvantages. Systematic reviews use pre-defined methodologies with the intention of reducing bias making the results to appear more robust. Nevertheless a critique appears to be the evident over emphasis of RCT which is argued to find less generalisable results. On the other hand, narrative review results appear to be more generalisable and tend to be more flexible in the incorporation of other methodologies. However within these reviews, the scientific, pre-defined strategies are not employed, thus considering them to have a higher risk of leading to bias. To conclude, it appears that both of these reviews can be of significant help and are easily justifiable for use, depending on the question that the researcher is trying to answer and the point at which the evidence base is at in its development.

The Cost of Higher Education Essay -- Education College Graduate Schoo

Introduction The increasing cost of higher education in the United States has been a continuing topic for debate in recent decades. American society emphasizes the importance of education after high school, yet the cost of undergraduate and advanced degrees continually rises at a greater rate than inflation. According to the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance, cost factors prevent 48% of college-qualified high school graduates from pursuing further education (McKeon, 2004, p. 45). The current system requires the majority of students to accumulate extensive debt with the expectation that they gain lucrative post-graduate employment to repay their loans. The cost of higher education raises several ethical issues. Among these are the perpetuation of the cycle of debt in American commercial society, the hierarchy of differing higher education institutions and cost, and the resulting socioeconomic and racial inequities in college demographics. Both an examination of the current trends and figures and a closer look at a real life example show the troublesome state of higher education and its effect on our commercial society. The Facts about Cost, Financial Assistance, and Loans Research indicates a steep upward trend in the cost of higher education throughout the 20th century. In recent decades, America has witnessed a widening gap between inflation and tuition. An incoming freshman at a typical college incurs charges for tuition, university fees, books, room and board, and other miscellaneous items. During the 1999-2000 academic year the total cost of attendance for full time undergraduates at a 2-year institution averaged $9,083, a 4-year public institution equaled $12,601, and a 4-year private... ...costs? USA Today, 123, 66-67. Retrieved November 29, 2004 from Academic Search Premier Database. Laurence, D. (2003, winter). Notes on the English major. ADE Bulletin 133, 3-5. Malveaux, J. (2004, July). Will tuition become a campaign issue? Black Issues in Higher Education, 21. Retrieved November 30, 2004 from Academic Search Premier Database. McKeon, H. P. (2004, January). Intervention is needed. USA Today, 1/5/04. Reiland, R. (1996, September) Deconstructing the ivory tower. National Review, 48, 36. Retrieved November 29, 2004, from Academic Search Premier Database. Through a different lens: A new angle on the price spiral in higher education. (2000, January/February). The National Center for Postsecondary Improvement. University of Minnesota. (2004). Retrieved December 12, 2004 from http://www1.umn.edu/twincities/01_about.php